In December 2024, SIS Professor Claudia Hofmann published a policy memo with the German Council on Foreign Relations (DGAP) titled “Spyware and Cyberattacks: The Rising Threat from Non-State Actors.” The memo analyzes how non-state actors—including terrorist organizations, cybercriminal groups, and drug cartels—are increasingly gaining access to commercial cyber intrusion technologies such as spyware, malware, and surveillance tools. These technologies, once reserved for state actors, are now proliferating in uncontrolled and often opaque markets, creating significant risks for international security, privacy, and democratic resilience.

The memo is particularly timely given the rise of AI-driven surveillance and warfare capabilities, the ongoing weaponization of cyber tools by authoritarian regimes, and the growing intersection of state and non-state cyber strategies.

To counter these developments, Hofmann outlines policy recommendations for the German government and EU institutions. These include: establishing robust export control regimes, creating certification and end-use tracking mechanisms for surveillance tech, and imposing targeted sanctions against companies and states that misuse these tools. The memo positions Germany as a potential leader in shaping a more responsible global governance framework for cyber technologies.

You can find the full memo (in German) here.